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Objective 31: Describe Piaget's theory of intellectual development with special regard to the following: assimilation and accommodation, object concept in the sensorimotor stage, the symbolic function in the pre-operational stage, conservation in the concrete operational stage, and the use of the hypothetical-deductive method in the formal operational stage
Jean Piaget used many different components in his theory of intellectual development. First, he came up with the concept of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when you interpret new experiences in relation with existing schemas, which is like adding new information to a file folder inside your brain. Accommodation is adapting your current understanding of something and incorporating the new information, which is like making an entirely new folder. He also developed four stages of cognitive development because he believed that children construct their understanding of the world while interacting with it at the same time. His four stages include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to two years of age. This includes object permanence, which is the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived. The next stage, the preoperational stage, occurs between two and 6 or 7 years of age. In this stage children begin to represent things with words and/or images. This stage also includes symbolic functions, which is where children master the ability to picture and remember objects that are not right in front of them. In other words, they can create mental pictures and save them for later. Next is the concrete operational stage, which occurs from age seven to age eleven. This stage uses conservation, which is the principle that says that quantity remains the same, despite changes in shape. The last stage of development is the formal operational stage, which occurs between age twelve to adulthood. This stage uses the hypothetical-deductive method, which is also known as the scientific method: form a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, and draw conclusions from the data.
This diagram is an example of assimilation. If a child sees a four-legged animal for the first time and calls it "doggy", he/she will continue to call it a doggy. This is because the child interpreted the information based on an existing schema.
Jean Piaget used many different components in his theory of intellectual development. First, he came up with the concept of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when you interpret new experiences in relation with existing schemas, which is like adding new information to a file folder inside your brain. Accommodation is adapting your current understanding of something and incorporating the new information, which is like making an entirely new folder. He also developed four stages of cognitive development because he believed that children construct their understanding of the world while interacting with it at the same time. His four stages include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to two years of age. This includes object permanence, which is the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived. The next stage, the preoperational stage, occurs between two and 6 or 7 years of age. In this stage children begin to represent things with words and/or images. This stage also includes symbolic functions, which is where children master the ability to picture and remember objects that are not right in front of them. In other words, they can create mental pictures and save them for later. Next is the concrete operational stage, which occurs from age seven to age eleven. This stage uses conservation, which is the principle that says that quantity remains the same, despite changes in shape. The last stage of development is the formal operational stage, which occurs between age twelve to adulthood. This stage uses the hypothetical-deductive method, which is also known as the scientific method: form a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, and draw conclusions from the data.
This diagram is an example of assimilation. If a child sees a four-legged animal for the first time and calls it "doggy", he/she will continue to call it a doggy. This is because the child interpreted the information based on an existing schema.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/6613439.png?446)
Here is an example of accommodation. For example, a child sees this four-legged animal for the first time (the cow). The child will then assimilate it to her schema of "doggy" because it is a four-legged animal. When the mother says that it's a cow, she will accommodate this new information and will call it a cow instead of a doggy. Then she will learn that not all four-legged animals are called doggy.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/3901302.jpg?944)
Objective 32: Describe the difference between sensation and perception
Before you can understand the difference between sensation and perception, you must first know what each term means. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us
to recognize meaningful objects and events. What I interpret from those definitions is that sensation is when you physically feel something, thanks to our nervous systems, and perception is actually taking that sensation and processing it in your own way. In other words, I believe that sensation is what you feel and perception is how you see it. Sensory adaptation is important in understanding sensation. Sensory adaptation is the diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. This means that if you are exposed to one sense long enough, you no longer begin to notice it because you’ve gotten used to it. When we are constantly exposed to a stimulus that stays constant, we become less aware of it because our nerve cells fire less frequently. If we stare at an object without flinching, why doesn’t it vanish from sight? This is because our eyes are always moving, whether we realize it or not. This ensures that our eye receptors constantly change. Psychologists wondered what would happen if we could stop our eyes from moving, so they devised an instrument that maintained a constant image on the eye’s inner surface. For example, let’s say we have a volunteer named Jane, and she has one of these instruments on. It is a mini projector mounted on a contact lens. When Jane’s eye moves, the image on the projector moves as well. At first she will see the complete image. But a few seconds later, Jane’s sensory system will begin to grow weary, and bit by bit the image will vanish and reappear in fragments. Sensory adaptation is important
in our perception of the world around us, which is what we will talk about next. Through experience, what we see is what we believe. These expectations may give us a perceptual set, which is a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affect what we perceive. This can affect what we hear, taste, feel, and see.
Look at this picture for example. Is this image in the center a man playing saxophone or a woman’s face? What we see depends on what image we looked at first. In each of this pictures, the meaning is clear, and that establishes perceptual expectations.
Now I will give an example of perceptions. Many things can affect our perceptions. For example, the context of a phrase may be unclear, thus giving people radically different perceptions. Imagine hearing a noise interrupted by the worlds “eel is on the wagon.” You would most likely think the first word was wheel. If you were given “eel is on the orange,” you would automatically think the first word was peel.
In conclusion, sensation and perception are two different things, and both are influenced by different things. Sensation is the actual feeling behind something, like taste, sound, or touch. Perception is how you see or feel something, like a saxophone player instead of a woman.
Before you can understand the difference between sensation and perception, you must first know what each term means. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us
to recognize meaningful objects and events. What I interpret from those definitions is that sensation is when you physically feel something, thanks to our nervous systems, and perception is actually taking that sensation and processing it in your own way. In other words, I believe that sensation is what you feel and perception is how you see it. Sensory adaptation is important in understanding sensation. Sensory adaptation is the diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. This means that if you are exposed to one sense long enough, you no longer begin to notice it because you’ve gotten used to it. When we are constantly exposed to a stimulus that stays constant, we become less aware of it because our nerve cells fire less frequently. If we stare at an object without flinching, why doesn’t it vanish from sight? This is because our eyes are always moving, whether we realize it or not. This ensures that our eye receptors constantly change. Psychologists wondered what would happen if we could stop our eyes from moving, so they devised an instrument that maintained a constant image on the eye’s inner surface. For example, let’s say we have a volunteer named Jane, and she has one of these instruments on. It is a mini projector mounted on a contact lens. When Jane’s eye moves, the image on the projector moves as well. At first she will see the complete image. But a few seconds later, Jane’s sensory system will begin to grow weary, and bit by bit the image will vanish and reappear in fragments. Sensory adaptation is important
in our perception of the world around us, which is what we will talk about next. Through experience, what we see is what we believe. These expectations may give us a perceptual set, which is a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affect what we perceive. This can affect what we hear, taste, feel, and see.
Look at this picture for example. Is this image in the center a man playing saxophone or a woman’s face? What we see depends on what image we looked at first. In each of this pictures, the meaning is clear, and that establishes perceptual expectations.
Now I will give an example of perceptions. Many things can affect our perceptions. For example, the context of a phrase may be unclear, thus giving people radically different perceptions. Imagine hearing a noise interrupted by the worlds “eel is on the wagon.” You would most likely think the first word was wheel. If you were given “eel is on the orange,” you would automatically think the first word was peel.
In conclusion, sensation and perception are two different things, and both are influenced by different things. Sensation is the actual feeling behind something, like taste, sound, or touch. Perception is how you see or feel something, like a saxophone player instead of a woman.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/5134607.jpg?393)
Objective 33: Describe the role that expectation and motivation have in perception
As explained in the last objective, perspective is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. The problem is that everyone interprets things differently. What one person sees, someone else might see something else. It is
also difficult when many different things can affect how we perceive something. There also is a problem with perceptual set, which is a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects what we
perceive. Perceptual set can influence what we hear, taste, feel, and see. Through
experience, we come to expect certain results, which can bias our opinion on
what we perceive. If you expect something to look a certain way, it will most
likely look that way to you.
Take, for example, this picture that was published in a British newspaper in 1972. The paper called this picture “the most amazing picture ever taken.” If this creates the same expectations it did for the majority of the paper’s readers, you will see the monster in the photo. But when a skeptical reader sees the photo, he/she will see a curved log. With this different perceptual set, you may change your perspective. What determines our perceptual set? Through experience we form concepts, called schemas, and they organize and interpret unfamiliar information. Our preexisting schemas influence how we interpret this information, and so do motives. Desired objects, for example a water bottle when thirsty, seem closer. This perceptual bias energizes our going for it. Our motives also direct how we perceive ambiguous images.
As explained in the last objective, perspective is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. The problem is that everyone interprets things differently. What one person sees, someone else might see something else. It is
also difficult when many different things can affect how we perceive something. There also is a problem with perceptual set, which is a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects what we
perceive. Perceptual set can influence what we hear, taste, feel, and see. Through
experience, we come to expect certain results, which can bias our opinion on
what we perceive. If you expect something to look a certain way, it will most
likely look that way to you.
Take, for example, this picture that was published in a British newspaper in 1972. The paper called this picture “the most amazing picture ever taken.” If this creates the same expectations it did for the majority of the paper’s readers, you will see the monster in the photo. But when a skeptical reader sees the photo, he/she will see a curved log. With this different perceptual set, you may change your perspective. What determines our perceptual set? Through experience we form concepts, called schemas, and they organize and interpret unfamiliar information. Our preexisting schemas influence how we interpret this information, and so do motives. Desired objects, for example a water bottle when thirsty, seem closer. This perceptual bias energizes our going for it. Our motives also direct how we perceive ambiguous images.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/3861244.jpg)
For example, if motivated to see a farm animal, approximately 7 in 10 people immediately see a horse. If motivated to see an aquatic animal, about 7 in 10 perceived a seal (Balcetis & Dunning, 2006.) As you can see, expectation and motivation impact our perceptions greatly. It is up to you to decide what you want to believe. Is it a horse or a seal?
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/7283010.gif?559)
Objective 34:Summarize the Gestalt principles ofperception
In the early twentieth century, a group of German psychologists saw that when given a cluster of sensations, people tend to organize them into a gestalt, which is a German word that means “form” or “whole”. A favorite saying of Gestalt psychologists is that in perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts. For example, if we mix sodium with chlorine, we get table salt-which looks nothing like sodium or chlorine separately. These German psychologists stated a fundamental truth: Our brain does more than register information about the world; we filter incoming information to construct perceptions. Our first perceptual task is to perceive any object as distinct from its surroundings. For example, if at a party, the
voice you attend to is the figure while everything else is the ground. This is known as the figure-ground relationship, which is the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). We then must organize the figure into a meaningful form. Basic features such as color and movement are processed instantly and automatically. Our minds follow certain rules for grouping, which is defined as the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. These rules show how the whole thing is perceived differently than the sum of its parts.
Here are examples of the three types of grouping explained in the
book. With proximity, we see three sets of two sticks and not six sticks. In
continuity, we see the diagonals lining up perfectly, when in fact they aren’t.
In closure, we assume the shapes are actually complete, but something white is
covering it up.
This is a video on YouTube taken from www.thepsychfiles.com and it further explains the Gestalt principles with real life examples.
In the early twentieth century, a group of German psychologists saw that when given a cluster of sensations, people tend to organize them into a gestalt, which is a German word that means “form” or “whole”. A favorite saying of Gestalt psychologists is that in perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts. For example, if we mix sodium with chlorine, we get table salt-which looks nothing like sodium or chlorine separately. These German psychologists stated a fundamental truth: Our brain does more than register information about the world; we filter incoming information to construct perceptions. Our first perceptual task is to perceive any object as distinct from its surroundings. For example, if at a party, the
voice you attend to is the figure while everything else is the ground. This is known as the figure-ground relationship, which is the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). We then must organize the figure into a meaningful form. Basic features such as color and movement are processed instantly and automatically. Our minds follow certain rules for grouping, which is defined as the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. These rules show how the whole thing is perceived differently than the sum of its parts.
Here are examples of the three types of grouping explained in the
book. With proximity, we see three sets of two sticks and not six sticks. In
continuity, we see the diagonals lining up perfectly, when in fact they aren’t.
In closure, we assume the shapes are actually complete, but something white is
covering it up.
This is a video on YouTube taken from www.thepsychfiles.com and it further explains the Gestalt principles with real life examples.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/7488409.jpg?577)
Objective 35: Explain the processes of depth perception and size constancy
According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, depth perception is the ability to see objects in
three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) discovered that depth perception is partly innate, but what about the other part? Our brain constructs these perceptions using information supplied by one or both eyes. Binocular cues are important in judging the distance of nearby objects. Binocular cues are depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. As everyone knows, seeing out of two eyes is better than seeing out of one eye. Since your eyes are about 2.5 inches apart, your retinas get slightly different images of the world. Your brain then compares these two images to judge how close an object is to you. Retinal disparity is a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the retinal disparity is, the closer the
object is. We also use monocular cues, which are depth cues available to each eye separately, to judge distances. The different types of monocular depth clues include relative height, relative size, interposition, relative motion, linear perspective, and light and shadow. Size constancy is a type of perceptual constancy. Perceptual constancy is perceiving objects as unchanging even as an illumination and retinal images change. Size constancy is when an object seems to change shape with the angle of our view, but actually stays the same. Because of size constancy, we see objects as having a constant size, even while our distances vary. This explains why perceived distance and perceived size are related. Perceiving an object’s distance helps us determine its size, and knowing an object’s general size can help us determine how far away it is.
A real life example of someone with bad depth perception would be myself. I was terrified to drive during Driver’s Ed because I was very much aware that I can’t judge distances. I don’t know why, but I have a hard time judging how far away something is. I either think something is too close when it is far away, or I think that it is far away when it is right next to me. Unfortunately, I had a bad experience with depth perception. As the story goes, I walked out to the school parking lot to go home. I parked my car in the front row, but I pulled in, which means I had to back out of the parking space. And as luck would have it that day, a bus was parked by the sidewalk. As I was backing out, I thought that I had could clear the bus. It turns out that I could not. I then proceeded to hit the front tire of the bus with my bumper. This event didn’t happen that long ago; in fact, it happened on January 29th, 2014. So, as you can tell, my depth perception is terrible. And I have yet to tell anybody except my parents and Bailey Simpson, for she was in my car when this happened. And now that I'm looking back on this objective, I wish I would have shared with Frank Warren and all the people attending the PostSecret event at NIACC!
This distorted room makes the person on the right look much larger because we judge his size based on the assumption that he is the same distance away as the man on the left.
Objective 35: Explain the processes of depth perception and size constancy
According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, depth perception is the ability to see objects in
three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) discovered that depth perception is partly innate, but what about the other part? Our brain constructs these perceptions using information supplied by one or both eyes. Binocular cues are important in judging the distance of nearby objects. Binocular cues are depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. As everyone knows, seeing out of two eyes is better than seeing out of one eye. Since your eyes are about 2.5 inches apart, your retinas get slightly different images of the world. Your brain then compares these two images to judge how close an object is to you. Retinal disparity is a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the retinal disparity is, the closer the
object is. We also use monocular cues, which are depth cues available to each eye separately, to judge distances. The different types of monocular depth clues include relative height, relative size, interposition, relative motion, linear perspective, and light and shadow. Size constancy is a type of perceptual constancy. Perceptual constancy is perceiving objects as unchanging even as an illumination and retinal images change. Size constancy is when an object seems to change shape with the angle of our view, but actually stays the same. Because of size constancy, we see objects as having a constant size, even while our distances vary. This explains why perceived distance and perceived size are related. Perceiving an object’s distance helps us determine its size, and knowing an object’s general size can help us determine how far away it is.
A real life example of someone with bad depth perception would be myself. I was terrified to drive during Driver’s Ed because I was very much aware that I can’t judge distances. I don’t know why, but I have a hard time judging how far away something is. I either think something is too close when it is far away, or I think that it is far away when it is right next to me. Unfortunately, I had a bad experience with depth perception. As the story goes, I walked out to the school parking lot to go home. I parked my car in the front row, but I pulled in, which means I had to back out of the parking space. And as luck would have it that day, a bus was parked by the sidewalk. As I was backing out, I thought that I had could clear the bus. It turns out that I could not. I then proceeded to hit the front tire of the bus with my bumper. This event didn’t happen that long ago; in fact, it happened on January 29th, 2014. So, as you can tell, my depth perception is terrible. And I have yet to tell anybody except my parents and Bailey Simpson, for she was in my car when this happened. And now that I'm looking back on this objective, I wish I would have shared with Frank Warren and all the people attending the PostSecret event at NIACC!
This distorted room makes the person on the right look much larger because we judge his size based on the assumption that he is the same distance away as the man on the left.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/6270365.jpg?580)
As you can see, it works both ways. Now the man on the right seems much larger than the man on the left.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/6997083.png?204)
Objective 36: Explain the relationship between size constancy and the Muller-Lyer illusion
Remember from the previous objective that size constancy is when an object seems to change shape with the angle of our view, but actually stays the same. In the Muller-Lyer illusion, three lines of the same length appear to be different lengths. These kind of illusions show us that our perception isn't a projection of the world onto our brain. Our sensations are actually disassembled into information that is reassembled into our brain that thinks it is resembling the real world. This is what makes illusions so confusing to us.
The image on the right is the Muller-Lyer illusion. As you can see, if you look at the black lines first, they all seem to be different sizes. Then when you look down, the red part is the actual size of the lines. Now it seems that they are all the same size.
Remember from the previous objective that size constancy is when an object seems to change shape with the angle of our view, but actually stays the same. In the Muller-Lyer illusion, three lines of the same length appear to be different lengths. These kind of illusions show us that our perception isn't a projection of the world onto our brain. Our sensations are actually disassembled into information that is reassembled into our brain that thinks it is resembling the real world. This is what makes illusions so confusing to us.
The image on the right is the Muller-Lyer illusion. As you can see, if you look at the black lines first, they all seem to be different sizes. Then when you look down, the red part is the actual size of the lines. Now it seems that they are all the same size.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/8872063.jpg?451)
This is a picture of a distorted room. As you can see, the man on the right looks much bigger than the woman on the left. Of course, they are both actually the same size. This is because of the angle of the room and how our eyes see it as an illusion.
Objective 37: Describe the characteristics of short and long term memory and the theories of forgetting
Short term memory is the memory that stores a few items briefly, like remembering a grocery list right before going grocery shopping. Short term memory only holds about seven things for a few moments. On the other hand, long term memory is the memory that stores limitless amounts of items permanently. These type of items include knowledge, skills, and experiences. The three components to long term memory includes encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is where the information is processed into the memory system. Storage is the retention of information over time by keeping that information for later use. Retrieval is the process of getting the information out of the memory system. Forgetting can happen at any of the three stages/components. Many things we sense aren't noticed, and if we don't encode something, we won't remember it. Age is an important factor when it comes to forgetting/remembering. Sometimes it is hard to retrieve something from storage, so it is soon forgotten. Right now, cognitive neuroscientists are trying to understand how we store things in our memory and figuring out why we can't retrieve things sometimes, which is why forgetting can occur during retrieval. This might occur when you experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, which is when you know the information, you just can't retrieve it.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html This website further discusses forgetting and how it is associated with short term and long term memory. There is also different theories listed here, and it further explains why we have short term and long term memory loss.
Short term memory is the memory that stores a few items briefly, like remembering a grocery list right before going grocery shopping. Short term memory only holds about seven things for a few moments. On the other hand, long term memory is the memory that stores limitless amounts of items permanently. These type of items include knowledge, skills, and experiences. The three components to long term memory includes encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is where the information is processed into the memory system. Storage is the retention of information over time by keeping that information for later use. Retrieval is the process of getting the information out of the memory system. Forgetting can happen at any of the three stages/components. Many things we sense aren't noticed, and if we don't encode something, we won't remember it. Age is an important factor when it comes to forgetting/remembering. Sometimes it is hard to retrieve something from storage, so it is soon forgotten. Right now, cognitive neuroscientists are trying to understand how we store things in our memory and figuring out why we can't retrieve things sometimes, which is why forgetting can occur during retrieval. This might occur when you experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, which is when you know the information, you just can't retrieve it.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html This website further discusses forgetting and how it is associated with short term and long term memory. There is also different theories listed here, and it further explains why we have short term and long term memory loss.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/6615236.png?437)
This cartoon is an example of short-term memory and what it feels/looks like when it is lost. As you can see, this person keeps forgetting what he is talking about in the first place. He then continues to make the conversation go around in circles.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/856720661.jpg?523)
Objective 38: Describe the different theories of motivation
In psychology, there are three different theories of motivation: the drive-reduction theory, the instinct theory, and the arousal theory. The arousal theory says that we are motivated to achieve high levels of stimulation. This is why people do dangerous or crazy things, such as skydiving or bungee jumping. The instinct theory says that motivation is patterned through a species that is unlearned. For example, every year salmon are known to swim upstream. Finally, the drive-reduction theory says that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (or a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need. An example of a drive would be food or water, and the drive reduction would then be either eating or drinking.
This comic is an example of the drive-reduction theory. Technically, money isn't a physiological need, but the woman is motivated to doing good deeds at work in order to receive more money.
This YouTube video talks more about the instinct theory. This video describes what instinct theory is, and what factors or components are involved.
In psychology, there are three different theories of motivation: the drive-reduction theory, the instinct theory, and the arousal theory. The arousal theory says that we are motivated to achieve high levels of stimulation. This is why people do dangerous or crazy things, such as skydiving or bungee jumping. The instinct theory says that motivation is patterned through a species that is unlearned. For example, every year salmon are known to swim upstream. Finally, the drive-reduction theory says that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (or a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need. An example of a drive would be food or water, and the drive reduction would then be either eating or drinking.
This comic is an example of the drive-reduction theory. Technically, money isn't a physiological need, but the woman is motivated to doing good deeds at work in order to receive more money.
This YouTube video talks more about the instinct theory. This video describes what instinct theory is, and what factors or components are involved.
Objective 39: Summarize the ethical guidelines for research on human subjects
When doing experiments, sometimes people must do research on other human beings. To keep things ethical, there are certain guidelines that must be met when experimenting on humans. The American Psychological Association has three guidelines: informed consent, protecting participants from harm/discomfort, and debriefing the participants. Informed consent is when the researcher gets permission from all of the participants before the experiment takes place. To protect the participants from harm/discomfort means just that: making sure that they are not being harmed in a way that is too extreme or could cause severe consequences. Debriefing means telling the participants what the experiment is about so they know what they are actually participating in.
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan03/principles.aspx This article came directly from the American Psychological Association. It talks about psychology research ethics and describes how each of the principles should be addressed. This website talks about five principles, while I only talked about three.
When doing experiments, sometimes people must do research on other human beings. To keep things ethical, there are certain guidelines that must be met when experimenting on humans. The American Psychological Association has three guidelines: informed consent, protecting participants from harm/discomfort, and debriefing the participants. Informed consent is when the researcher gets permission from all of the participants before the experiment takes place. To protect the participants from harm/discomfort means just that: making sure that they are not being harmed in a way that is too extreme or could cause severe consequences. Debriefing means telling the participants what the experiment is about so they know what they are actually participating in.
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan03/principles.aspx This article came directly from the American Psychological Association. It talks about psychology research ethics and describes how each of the principles should be addressed. This website talks about five principles, while I only talked about three.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/3234252.jpg?332)
This is an example of debriefing, although it isn't a very good one! As you can see, the researchers are explaining what they would like the participant to do. Of course, whether the participant wants to take part in the experiment is his decision.
This is an example of debriefing, although it isn't a very good one! As you can see, the researchers are explaining what they would like the participant to do. Of course, whether the participant wants to take part in the experiment is his decision.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/650800603.jpg?436)
Objective 40: Define intelligence and the history of measuring it
Intelligence is defined as the mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. People also knew what intelligence was, but they didn't know how to measure it. That is, until Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon devised a test to measure a child's mental age, or the level of performance associated with an individual's chronological age. Then a man named Lewis Terman took some of Binet's beliefs and adapted it into the Stanford-Binet. This is a widely used American revision of the original intelligence test made by Binet. Then William Stern came up with the idea of an IQ, or intelligence quotient, which is the numerical figure that is used to measure and show intelligence. A person's IQ was found by a person's mental age divided by a person's chronological age and then multiplied by 100. An average person whose mental age is the same as their chronological age gets an IQ of 100. For example, if a ten-year-old answers questions like a thirteen-year-old, their IQ will be higher than 100. Unfortunately, this formula only worked for children, not adults. Today, most IQs are not calculated this way. Now, they represent the test taker's performance against other people of the same age group.
This cartoon is just a comical picture of an IQ test for birds. If this was a real IQ test, this bird's score would be compared to other birds of the same age group. Hopefully he gets all of these questions right!
Intelligence is defined as the mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. People also knew what intelligence was, but they didn't know how to measure it. That is, until Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon devised a test to measure a child's mental age, or the level of performance associated with an individual's chronological age. Then a man named Lewis Terman took some of Binet's beliefs and adapted it into the Stanford-Binet. This is a widely used American revision of the original intelligence test made by Binet. Then William Stern came up with the idea of an IQ, or intelligence quotient, which is the numerical figure that is used to measure and show intelligence. A person's IQ was found by a person's mental age divided by a person's chronological age and then multiplied by 100. An average person whose mental age is the same as their chronological age gets an IQ of 100. For example, if a ten-year-old answers questions like a thirteen-year-old, their IQ will be higher than 100. Unfortunately, this formula only worked for children, not adults. Today, most IQs are not calculated this way. Now, they represent the test taker's performance against other people of the same age group.
This cartoon is just a comical picture of an IQ test for birds. If this was a real IQ test, this bird's score would be compared to other birds of the same age group. Hopefully he gets all of these questions right!
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/704880474.jpg?418)
Here is also a comical cartoon that involves an IQ test. This is probably what someone would say if they did not get a very high IQ.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/566424047.jpg?468)
Objective 41: Summarize the development of language formation
As we all know, language is spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning. The first time we begin language formation begins when we are four months of age. This is when babies enter the babbling stage, making different random sounds that aren't even related to their "household" language. They are usual consonant vowel pairs that are formed by putting the tongue in front of the mouth or opening or closing the lips. Babies then recognize their household language around ten months of age. They then lose the ability to make sounds that aren't their native language. By one year of age, they begin to use one word to communicate what they want to say. The next year, at age two, they learn to use two word to communicate. It is also during this time that they use telegraphic speech. Telegraphic speech is using nouns and verbs, like "jump frog". By the time children go off for preschool, they can form and speak complete sentences. Actually, we are said to only use 150 words to explain about half of what we say, but we know up to 60,000 words from the time we're one to high school graduation, an average of 3,500 words a year. That's ten words a day!
This comic at the right illustrates how our language develops. As you can see, the child is using the incorrect tense of the verb "put". Of course, over time this child will be able to use complete sentences with the correct tense
As we all know, language is spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning. The first time we begin language formation begins when we are four months of age. This is when babies enter the babbling stage, making different random sounds that aren't even related to their "household" language. They are usual consonant vowel pairs that are formed by putting the tongue in front of the mouth or opening or closing the lips. Babies then recognize their household language around ten months of age. They then lose the ability to make sounds that aren't their native language. By one year of age, they begin to use one word to communicate what they want to say. The next year, at age two, they learn to use two word to communicate. It is also during this time that they use telegraphic speech. Telegraphic speech is using nouns and verbs, like "jump frog". By the time children go off for preschool, they can form and speak complete sentences. Actually, we are said to only use 150 words to explain about half of what we say, but we know up to 60,000 words from the time we're one to high school graduation, an average of 3,500 words a year. That's ten words a day!
This comic at the right illustrates how our language develops. As you can see, the child is using the incorrect tense of the verb "put". Of course, over time this child will be able to use complete sentences with the correct tense
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/1/4/26145398/702567153.jpg?482)
This is another cartoon illustrating language development. I find this cartoon funny, because at first there is practically no language at all. This is like the babbling stage babies go through. Then it ends at profanity!