Objective 1: Describe the problems psychology must face as a young science
As long as psychology has been around, people have questioned whether or not it is really a branch of science. But what is psychology? According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. To further validate this definition, the Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s definition of psychology has three parts or different definitions; 1. The science of behavior, 2. The mental or behavioral characteristics of an individual or group, 3. The study of mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s definition of science is knowledge about or study of the natural world based on facts learned through experiments and observation. This is where the controversy begins. Some people say that psychology isn’t a science at all; they believe that psychology doesn’t have hard-core evidence, but science does. This is true in a sense. When people think about science, they think about exact numbers and calculations. They think about laws and rules, like Newton’s Laws of Motion. While psychology does use numbers, these numbers cannot be exact; they change according to the situation. Psychology predicts behavior, but it doesn’t assume that the behavior will happen every time. Another problem psychology faces is that people are unpredictable. While science stays constant every time, such as E will always equal MC2, all people are different. Things happen at random all the time in the real world; we can’t predict when a seemingly normal person suddenly decides to murder his or her entire family. We would all like to think that people are easy to predict and control, but they aren’t. What one person thinks might not be the same as someone else. We all think and perceive things differently. Psychology tries to explain these behaviors, but there will always be random occurrences that go against what we think as “normal” behavior. This is because the mind is very complex and hard to predict. Psychology tries to answer the why questions, which is difficult to do. I believe that people don’t give psychology enough credit as a science. Psychologists do experiments and tests; they just don’t always end up the same and take longer to complete. In science, if something is tested enough times, it can be applied to everything and is guaranteed to work every time. In psychology, surveys and studies can help correlate things, but they don’t apply to every situation and aren’t guaranteed to work every time.
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/under-the-influence/201308/the-psychology-the-psychology-isnt-science-argument. This article further explains the controversy with psychology and why people have a hard time believing that psychology is a science.
http://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2006/02/7796.html. This article shows the 20 most psychologically intriguing legal cases as of 2006 and shows that it is hard to prove why people behave the way that they do. Psychology is especially tricky in legal cases, as some people believe that people use psychology as a way to get around the legal system, aka pleading insanity. This is especially hard to prove in court cases, and when it is proved, some people say it is used as an excuse. It is very hard to prove whether or not a person was in their right mind when they committed a crime, which makes people doubt psychology.
Objective 2: Identify the major theoretical and professional perspectives in psychology and their basic assumptions
Over the course of psychology, there have been many different perspectives and theories related to psychology. One of the major psychologists discussed in our book is Charles Darwin. His book On the Origin of Species explains the evolutionary process known as natural selection, which explains that nature selects specific traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce. His principle has been called “the single best idea anyone has ever had”, and is still present 150+ years later as the main principle of biology. This was an important step in psychology as it goes back to before mankind to explain things much before our time. He also believed that natural selection shaped behaviors and not just bodies. Behaviorism was also an important perspective in psychology. Led by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, they redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior”. They stated that science was rooted in observation. They believed that even though you cannot observe a sensation, feeling, or thought, you can observe and record people’s behavior and how they respond to different situations. John B. Watson demonstrated conditioned responses to stimuli on a baby who became known as “Little Albert” while B. F. Skinner invented the “Skinner Box” to show operant conditioning. Both of these early psychologists showed how important behavior is in the field of psychology and forever changed the definition of psychology. Perhaps one of the most well-known psychologists is Sigmund Freud, who developed Freudian psychology. He emphasized how our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior. His controversial theory of childhood sexuality is still discussed today. His five stages of psychosexual development make him sound somewhat crazy, but he strived in discovering personality and the unconscious mind and influenced humanity’s self-understanding. His therapist ideas are implemented today, and his teachings are still used today. A branch of cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, has made an important leap in psychology. Cognitive neuroscience has helped us understand brain activity and how it relates to mental activity. The cognitive, or thought, approach has helped us look into ourselves and treat disorders such as depression. This field of psychology is especially important because it helps explain our thought processes, and psychology starts with the mind. This is a growing field and is now one of the important perspectives in psychology today.
http://www.livescience.com/445-darwin-natural-selection-work-humans.html is an article about natural selection. This article talks about a study that was done in 2005 to prove that natural selection is happening now in the real world.
As long as psychology has been around, people have questioned whether or not it is really a branch of science. But what is psychology? According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. To further validate this definition, the Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s definition of psychology has three parts or different definitions; 1. The science of behavior, 2. The mental or behavioral characteristics of an individual or group, 3. The study of mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s definition of science is knowledge about or study of the natural world based on facts learned through experiments and observation. This is where the controversy begins. Some people say that psychology isn’t a science at all; they believe that psychology doesn’t have hard-core evidence, but science does. This is true in a sense. When people think about science, they think about exact numbers and calculations. They think about laws and rules, like Newton’s Laws of Motion. While psychology does use numbers, these numbers cannot be exact; they change according to the situation. Psychology predicts behavior, but it doesn’t assume that the behavior will happen every time. Another problem psychology faces is that people are unpredictable. While science stays constant every time, such as E will always equal MC2, all people are different. Things happen at random all the time in the real world; we can’t predict when a seemingly normal person suddenly decides to murder his or her entire family. We would all like to think that people are easy to predict and control, but they aren’t. What one person thinks might not be the same as someone else. We all think and perceive things differently. Psychology tries to explain these behaviors, but there will always be random occurrences that go against what we think as “normal” behavior. This is because the mind is very complex and hard to predict. Psychology tries to answer the why questions, which is difficult to do. I believe that people don’t give psychology enough credit as a science. Psychologists do experiments and tests; they just don’t always end up the same and take longer to complete. In science, if something is tested enough times, it can be applied to everything and is guaranteed to work every time. In psychology, surveys and studies can help correlate things, but they don’t apply to every situation and aren’t guaranteed to work every time.
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/under-the-influence/201308/the-psychology-the-psychology-isnt-science-argument. This article further explains the controversy with psychology and why people have a hard time believing that psychology is a science.
http://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2006/02/7796.html. This article shows the 20 most psychologically intriguing legal cases as of 2006 and shows that it is hard to prove why people behave the way that they do. Psychology is especially tricky in legal cases, as some people believe that people use psychology as a way to get around the legal system, aka pleading insanity. This is especially hard to prove in court cases, and when it is proved, some people say it is used as an excuse. It is very hard to prove whether or not a person was in their right mind when they committed a crime, which makes people doubt psychology.
Objective 2: Identify the major theoretical and professional perspectives in psychology and their basic assumptions
Over the course of psychology, there have been many different perspectives and theories related to psychology. One of the major psychologists discussed in our book is Charles Darwin. His book On the Origin of Species explains the evolutionary process known as natural selection, which explains that nature selects specific traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce. His principle has been called “the single best idea anyone has ever had”, and is still present 150+ years later as the main principle of biology. This was an important step in psychology as it goes back to before mankind to explain things much before our time. He also believed that natural selection shaped behaviors and not just bodies. Behaviorism was also an important perspective in psychology. Led by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, they redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior”. They stated that science was rooted in observation. They believed that even though you cannot observe a sensation, feeling, or thought, you can observe and record people’s behavior and how they respond to different situations. John B. Watson demonstrated conditioned responses to stimuli on a baby who became known as “Little Albert” while B. F. Skinner invented the “Skinner Box” to show operant conditioning. Both of these early psychologists showed how important behavior is in the field of psychology and forever changed the definition of psychology. Perhaps one of the most well-known psychologists is Sigmund Freud, who developed Freudian psychology. He emphasized how our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior. His controversial theory of childhood sexuality is still discussed today. His five stages of psychosexual development make him sound somewhat crazy, but he strived in discovering personality and the unconscious mind and influenced humanity’s self-understanding. His therapist ideas are implemented today, and his teachings are still used today. A branch of cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, has made an important leap in psychology. Cognitive neuroscience has helped us understand brain activity and how it relates to mental activity. The cognitive, or thought, approach has helped us look into ourselves and treat disorders such as depression. This field of psychology is especially important because it helps explain our thought processes, and psychology starts with the mind. This is a growing field and is now one of the important perspectives in psychology today.
http://www.livescience.com/445-darwin-natural-selection-work-humans.html is an article about natural selection. This article talks about a study that was done in 2005 to prove that natural selection is happening now in the real world.
These are the five stages of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development. This further explains how our childhood experiences affect us as adults. Psychologists today have discarded these stages, but they still give us an insight to how our past experiences relate to the present.
Objective 3: Describe the characteristics of a good (reliable) theory
Before you can know if a theory is good or bad, you must first know what a theory is. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, a theory is an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. What makes a theory good? First of all, a good theory must have testable predictions, or hypotheses. To be able to test something means that research can be used to see if the hypotheses are true or not. To try and avoid biases, psychologists use precise operational definitions in their research. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, an operational definition is a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, hunger might be defined as “hours without eating”, but someone else might take it as “days without eating”. These operational definitions must be precise in order for someone else to replicate the original observation with different participants, materials, and circumstances to see if the results are the same. In short, a good theory must organize observations and imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory. In other words, a good theory must have testable predictions, also known as hypotheses, to be tested. Secondly, a theory must be able to make predictions that anybody can test by using exact operational definitions. If these things are accomplished, the research may lead to a revised theory that expands our knowledge, or it will be replicated and either proved or disproved by someone else.
http://typeunsafe.wordpress.com/2011/09/02/four-qualities-of-a-good-theory/. This article explains more about theories and what qualities make a theory reliable.
According to the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (2004), we had preconceived ideas that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. This caused intelligence analysts to wrongly interpret their observations to confirm that theory. This led to the U.S. invading Iraq. The thing to remember is that our theories can bias our observations.
Before you can know if a theory is good or bad, you must first know what a theory is. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, a theory is an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. What makes a theory good? First of all, a good theory must have testable predictions, or hypotheses. To be able to test something means that research can be used to see if the hypotheses are true or not. To try and avoid biases, psychologists use precise operational definitions in their research. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, an operational definition is a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, hunger might be defined as “hours without eating”, but someone else might take it as “days without eating”. These operational definitions must be precise in order for someone else to replicate the original observation with different participants, materials, and circumstances to see if the results are the same. In short, a good theory must organize observations and imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory. In other words, a good theory must have testable predictions, also known as hypotheses, to be tested. Secondly, a theory must be able to make predictions that anybody can test by using exact operational definitions. If these things are accomplished, the research may lead to a revised theory that expands our knowledge, or it will be replicated and either proved or disproved by someone else.
http://typeunsafe.wordpress.com/2011/09/02/four-qualities-of-a-good-theory/. This article explains more about theories and what qualities make a theory reliable.
According to the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (2004), we had preconceived ideas that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. This caused intelligence analysts to wrongly interpret their observations to confirm that theory. This led to the U.S. invading Iraq. The thing to remember is that our theories can bias our observations.
Objective 4: Describe what constitutes valid and reliable observation especially with regards to operationalizing variables, experimenter bias, demand characteristics, and unobtrusive measures
Observation is one of the main tools used in psychology to collect data. Without observations, we wouldn't be able to understand human behavior. In order for an observation to be considered valid and reliable, many factors are taken into consideration. One thing that must be addressed is the operationalizing variables. These are used so everyone is "speaking the same language". For example, if I said I was upset, everyone would have a different opinion on the definition of upset. Next, you must eliminate experimenter bias, which is when the experimenter's views or opinions alter the outcome of the experiment. When making an experiment, you want the results to be genuine, no matter what outcome you get. Demand characteristics are also important to not have in observations. Demand characteristics are the cues that make the participants aware what the experimenter expects or wants to find in the experiment. This is bad because the participants could possibly alter the results to make the experimenter happy. Lastly, unobtrusive measures must be taken into account. Unobtrusive measures is a method of making observations without people being aware that they are being observed. This technique is used to decreased bias on both sides, the experimenter and the participants.
As you can see from the picture above, this is an example of experimenter bias. The experimenter in this picture is trying to get rid of one of the samples. Whether or not the sample is what the experimenter wanted, when making observations, the experimenter needs to have valid and reliable results.
Observation is one of the main tools used in psychology to collect data. Without observations, we wouldn't be able to understand human behavior. In order for an observation to be considered valid and reliable, many factors are taken into consideration. One thing that must be addressed is the operationalizing variables. These are used so everyone is "speaking the same language". For example, if I said I was upset, everyone would have a different opinion on the definition of upset. Next, you must eliminate experimenter bias, which is when the experimenter's views or opinions alter the outcome of the experiment. When making an experiment, you want the results to be genuine, no matter what outcome you get. Demand characteristics are also important to not have in observations. Demand characteristics are the cues that make the participants aware what the experimenter expects or wants to find in the experiment. This is bad because the participants could possibly alter the results to make the experimenter happy. Lastly, unobtrusive measures must be taken into account. Unobtrusive measures is a method of making observations without people being aware that they are being observed. This technique is used to decreased bias on both sides, the experimenter and the participants.
As you can see from the picture above, this is an example of experimenter bias. The experimenter in this picture is trying to get rid of one of the samples. Whether or not the sample is what the experimenter wanted, when making observations, the experimenter needs to have valid and reliable results.
As you can see from this picture, this is an example of both experimenter bias and demand characteristics. The experimenter is shown already having preconceived questions, and he is asking the woman if her opinions will match. She doesn't know what to say, so she could be persuaded either way.
Objective 5: Describe the differences between
correlational and experimental research especially with respect to issues of
causality and prediction
Before you can know the difference between correlational and experimental research, you must be able to understand the definitions. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, correlation is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. An experiment is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. The thing to note here is that correlational research predicts. Correlations are helpful in determining how closely two things are related, and by using the correlation coefficient, you can get a statistical measure of the relationship. The thing to remember is that CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION. Correlations indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such. Experiments, however, are used to determine cause-effect relationships. That’s what experiments do; they isolate cause and effect. While correlational research exposes naturally occurring relationships, experimental research manipulates a factor to determine its effect. Experiments actually prove cause-effect relationships which are supported by actual data and numbers. In other words, you can say this means this. In correlational research, you can only say these two are related, but it doesn’t mean it will happen.
Here is a cartoon proving that CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION. While the Venn Diagram shows a high percentage of moon travelers consuming chicken, this does not mean that chicken makes you go to the moon!
Now we will see what experimental research is. For example, suppose you wanted to study the effect of a certain drug. You take one group, the control group, and give them a placebo. You then give the other group the actual drug. You are manipulating variables by determining which group gets the fake drug while the other group gets the real drug. After being tested enough times, you can confirm the effects of this drug on a person.
correlational and experimental research especially with respect to issues of
causality and prediction
Before you can know the difference between correlational and experimental research, you must be able to understand the definitions. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, correlation is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. An experiment is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. The thing to note here is that correlational research predicts. Correlations are helpful in determining how closely two things are related, and by using the correlation coefficient, you can get a statistical measure of the relationship. The thing to remember is that CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION. Correlations indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such. Experiments, however, are used to determine cause-effect relationships. That’s what experiments do; they isolate cause and effect. While correlational research exposes naturally occurring relationships, experimental research manipulates a factor to determine its effect. Experiments actually prove cause-effect relationships which are supported by actual data and numbers. In other words, you can say this means this. In correlational research, you can only say these two are related, but it doesn’t mean it will happen.
Here is a cartoon proving that CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION. While the Venn Diagram shows a high percentage of moon travelers consuming chicken, this does not mean that chicken makes you go to the moon!
Now we will see what experimental research is. For example, suppose you wanted to study the effect of a certain drug. You take one group, the control group, and give them a placebo. You then give the other group the actual drug. You are manipulating variables by determining which group gets the fake drug while the other group gets the real drug. After being tested enough times, you can confirm the effects of this drug on a person.
Objective 6: Define what a positive, negative, and zero correlation is
As defined in my psychology textbook, Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, correlation is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. I interpreted the definition of correlation as the degree to which two things go together, thus showing how one affects the other. There are three types of correlation: positive, negative, and zero. The actual number used to determine correlation is called the correlation coefficient. This number is between -1 and +1. The closer the number is to the absolute value of -1 or +1, the closer the two objects go together. For example, -.98 is closer than +9.0, even though -.98 is negative, because the absolute value of -.98 is 9.8. Thus proving that -.98 has a higher correlation coefficient than +.90, but both still are high correlation coefficients. To show this information visually, we use graphs called scatterplots. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, a scatterplot is a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicated high correlation). This is what I interpreted from the book. A scatterplot is a graphed group of dots, and each dot represents the value of two variables. The slope shows the direction of the relationship between the two variables, either positive, negative, or zero. The amount of scatter shows the strength of the correlation. The closer the dots line up, the higher the correlation. If the dots seemed to be scattered randomly with no known pattern, there is zero correlation. If two sets of scores are related, it is considered a positive correlation, it is shown by two arrows going in the same direction (↓↓ or ↑↑). If two sets of scores are related inversely, or oppositely, then it is considered a negative correlation, which is shown by two arrows going opposite directions (↑↓ or ↓↑). Just because a correlation is “negative” or “positive” doesn’t say anything about its strength or weakness. The point to remember in all of this is that correlation does not equal causation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Just because two things are closely related DOES NOT mean that they will happen. We use correlations to predict, not to assume. Below are some examples of the different types of correlation.
Here is an example of negative correlation using hours of video games played and grade point average. This means that the longer you play video games, the lower your grade point average is. https://tellier.edublogs.org/2011/02/10/scatter-plot-examples/
Here is an example of zero correlation using shoe size and IQ. This means that you can have any size shoe and have a high IQ or low IQ. http://www.miracosta.edu/Home/rmorrissette/Chapter08.htm
As defined in my psychology textbook, Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, correlation is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. I interpreted the definition of correlation as the degree to which two things go together, thus showing how one affects the other. There are three types of correlation: positive, negative, and zero. The actual number used to determine correlation is called the correlation coefficient. This number is between -1 and +1. The closer the number is to the absolute value of -1 or +1, the closer the two objects go together. For example, -.98 is closer than +9.0, even though -.98 is negative, because the absolute value of -.98 is 9.8. Thus proving that -.98 has a higher correlation coefficient than +.90, but both still are high correlation coefficients. To show this information visually, we use graphs called scatterplots. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, a scatterplot is a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicated high correlation). This is what I interpreted from the book. A scatterplot is a graphed group of dots, and each dot represents the value of two variables. The slope shows the direction of the relationship between the two variables, either positive, negative, or zero. The amount of scatter shows the strength of the correlation. The closer the dots line up, the higher the correlation. If the dots seemed to be scattered randomly with no known pattern, there is zero correlation. If two sets of scores are related, it is considered a positive correlation, it is shown by two arrows going in the same direction (↓↓ or ↑↑). If two sets of scores are related inversely, or oppositely, then it is considered a negative correlation, which is shown by two arrows going opposite directions (↑↓ or ↓↑). Just because a correlation is “negative” or “positive” doesn’t say anything about its strength or weakness. The point to remember in all of this is that correlation does not equal causation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Just because two things are closely related DOES NOT mean that they will happen. We use correlations to predict, not to assume. Below are some examples of the different types of correlation.
Here is an example of negative correlation using hours of video games played and grade point average. This means that the longer you play video games, the lower your grade point average is. https://tellier.edublogs.org/2011/02/10/scatter-plot-examples/
Here is an example of zero correlation using shoe size and IQ. This means that you can have any size shoe and have a high IQ or low IQ. http://www.miracosta.edu/Home/rmorrissette/Chapter08.htm
Objective 7: Construct an experiment from a given
hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent
variables
Remember from the previous objective that an experiment is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. To begin to construct an experiment, you need to form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable prediction. My hypothesis is: The higher dosage of Tylenol will make my
headache go away faster. Now that there is a hypothesis, you need to identify the independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is the experimental factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. In this case, the independent variable is the drug dosage and the time. The dependent variable is the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. In this case, the dependent variable is the strength of the headache. Unfortunately, other variables can also influence an experiment. Other factors that can potentially influence the results of the experiment are called confounding variables. This includes things such as race, age, weight, gender, etc. The important thing to remember is that the independent variable is what you control, while the dependent variable is what changes according to the independent variable.
This is an example showing how the independent variable is
different than the dependent variable. The independent variable is unaffected, while the dependent variable is affected by the independentvariable.
hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent
variables
Remember from the previous objective that an experiment is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. To begin to construct an experiment, you need to form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable prediction. My hypothesis is: The higher dosage of Tylenol will make my
headache go away faster. Now that there is a hypothesis, you need to identify the independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is the experimental factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. In this case, the independent variable is the drug dosage and the time. The dependent variable is the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. In this case, the dependent variable is the strength of the headache. Unfortunately, other variables can also influence an experiment. Other factors that can potentially influence the results of the experiment are called confounding variables. This includes things such as race, age, weight, gender, etc. The important thing to remember is that the independent variable is what you control, while the dependent variable is what changes according to the independent variable.
This is an example showing how the independent variable is
different than the dependent variable. The independent variable is unaffected, while the dependent variable is affected by the independentvariable.
This again shows that the independent variable is the one you control, and the purpose of the experiment is to find out its effect on the dependent variable. It says, "The independent variable is the one under your control. To find out its effect on the dependent variable is your goal." The scientist is saying “The suspense is driving me crazy!”
Objective 8: Describe the process of neural transmission
To first be able to understand the process of neural transmission, you must know what that our body’s neural system is composed of neurons. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, a neuron is a nerve cell, which is the basic building block of the nervous system. Neurons differ, but all neurons have the same theme. Each neuron consists of a cell body and branching fibers. These fibers, known as dendrites, receive information and direct it toward the cell body. The cell’s long fiber, also known as the axon fiber, passes the message through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The important thing to remember is that dendrites listen and axons speak. Unlike short dendrites, axons are very long and can stretch several feet through the body. Certain axons are coated with a myelin sheath, which is a layer of fatty tissue that helps speed up impulses. If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis occurs. This is a result of the communication to the muscles slowing down, which eventually ends in the loss of muscle control. Neurons transmit messages when they are stimulated by signals from our senses or when triggered by chemical signals from other neurons. In response to these signals, a neuron fires an impulse called the action potential. This is a short electrical charge that travels down the axon. A neural impulse can travel from 2 miles an hour to 180 miles an hour. Another thing about neurons is that they generate electricity from chemical events. In this process, ions are exchanged. The fluid outside an axon’s membrane has mostly positively charged ions, while a resting axon’s fluid interior has mostly negatively charged ions. This makes what is called the resting potential. The axon’s surface is selectively permeable, meaning it only allows certain things through its gates. It’s when a neuron fires that the gates open. Positively charged sodium ions then enter, and depolarize that axon, and another axon gate opens, and so on. During the refractory period, the neuron pumps the positively charged sodium ions back outside of the axon. Then it is set to fire again. The amazing thing is that each individual neuron is like a tiny device that performs complex calculations as it receives signals from other neurons, all of which occurs in a very short amount of time. Most of the signals received are excitatory, which is like pushing a neuron into overdrive. Other signals are inhibitory, which is like putting the brakes on. If excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals exceed the threshold, or minimum intensity, they combine to form the action potential. The neuron’s impulse if an all-or-none response, meaning that neurons either fire or don’t. A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more. This, however, does not affect the action potential’s strength or speed. How do neurons communicate with each other? At one point, scientists used to believe that the axon of one nerve cell fused with the dendrites of another. Then British physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington proved that there was a brief interruption in between, which he called a synapse. Because of him, we now are aware that the axon terminal of one neuron is separated from the receiving neuron by a synaptic gap. But how do messages get passed on? When an action potential reaches the terminals at the end of an axon, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. It is precise, like a key fitting into a lock. The neurotransmitter then unlocks the receiving site on the other axon and the ions flow in, either exciting or inhibiting the neuron to fire. In a process called reuptake, the sending neuron then reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters.
This is a diagram to help explain how neurotransmitters send messages to other axons. This goes a little more in-depth than the book, but it gives specific steps to how neurotransmitters work.
This is a YouTube video further explaining how neurons work using a diagram. It is a short and simple explanation that is easy to understand.
To first be able to understand the process of neural transmission, you must know what that our body’s neural system is composed of neurons. According to Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, a neuron is a nerve cell, which is the basic building block of the nervous system. Neurons differ, but all neurons have the same theme. Each neuron consists of a cell body and branching fibers. These fibers, known as dendrites, receive information and direct it toward the cell body. The cell’s long fiber, also known as the axon fiber, passes the message through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The important thing to remember is that dendrites listen and axons speak. Unlike short dendrites, axons are very long and can stretch several feet through the body. Certain axons are coated with a myelin sheath, which is a layer of fatty tissue that helps speed up impulses. If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis occurs. This is a result of the communication to the muscles slowing down, which eventually ends in the loss of muscle control. Neurons transmit messages when they are stimulated by signals from our senses or when triggered by chemical signals from other neurons. In response to these signals, a neuron fires an impulse called the action potential. This is a short electrical charge that travels down the axon. A neural impulse can travel from 2 miles an hour to 180 miles an hour. Another thing about neurons is that they generate electricity from chemical events. In this process, ions are exchanged. The fluid outside an axon’s membrane has mostly positively charged ions, while a resting axon’s fluid interior has mostly negatively charged ions. This makes what is called the resting potential. The axon’s surface is selectively permeable, meaning it only allows certain things through its gates. It’s when a neuron fires that the gates open. Positively charged sodium ions then enter, and depolarize that axon, and another axon gate opens, and so on. During the refractory period, the neuron pumps the positively charged sodium ions back outside of the axon. Then it is set to fire again. The amazing thing is that each individual neuron is like a tiny device that performs complex calculations as it receives signals from other neurons, all of which occurs in a very short amount of time. Most of the signals received are excitatory, which is like pushing a neuron into overdrive. Other signals are inhibitory, which is like putting the brakes on. If excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals exceed the threshold, or minimum intensity, they combine to form the action potential. The neuron’s impulse if an all-or-none response, meaning that neurons either fire or don’t. A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more. This, however, does not affect the action potential’s strength or speed. How do neurons communicate with each other? At one point, scientists used to believe that the axon of one nerve cell fused with the dendrites of another. Then British physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington proved that there was a brief interruption in between, which he called a synapse. Because of him, we now are aware that the axon terminal of one neuron is separated from the receiving neuron by a synaptic gap. But how do messages get passed on? When an action potential reaches the terminals at the end of an axon, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. It is precise, like a key fitting into a lock. The neurotransmitter then unlocks the receiving site on the other axon and the ions flow in, either exciting or inhibiting the neuron to fire. In a process called reuptake, the sending neuron then reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters.
This is a diagram to help explain how neurotransmitters send messages to other axons. This goes a little more in-depth than the book, but it gives specific steps to how neurotransmitters work.
This is a YouTube video further explaining how neurons work using a diagram. It is a short and simple explanation that is easy to understand.
Objective 9: Describe the structure of the human nervous
system
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules defines nervous system as the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. The human nervous system is divided into two main kinds, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system while the peripheral nervous system is the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. Electrical cables called nerves connect the central nervous system with the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands. The information that travels in our nervous system includes three types of neurons. Sensory neurons carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Motor neurons carry instructions from the central nervous system to the muscles. Information is also processed in the brain’s internal communication system with interneurons. All of this is very complex; our nervous system has millions of sensory neurons, millions of motor neurons, and billions and billions of interneurons. Our peripheral nervous system has two different components, somatic and autonomic. The somatic nervous system enables us to move our skeletal muscles. Our autonomic nervous system controls the glands and muscles of our internal organs, and it serves two important functions which can be overridden, but they are normally automatic. The sympathetic nervous system arouses and expends energy. This is used to accelerate your heartbeat, raise your blood pressure, slow your digestion, raise your blood sugar, and make you ready and alert. When the stress is over, your parasympathetic nervous system does the opposite, conserving energy as it calms you. Your heartbeat will decrease, you blood sugar will lower, etc. Both of these work together to balance you out. The central nervous system is the most important because it houses your brain. With approximately 40 billion neurons in the brain alone, there are about 400 trillion synapses. These neurons get grouped into work groups called neural networks. They then network with nearby neurons to have short, fast connections. The other part of the central nervous system, the spinal cord. The spinal cord is a two-way information highway that connects between the peripheral nervous system and the brain. Neural fibers send up sensory information while descending fibers send back motor-control information. The neural pathways that control our reflexes is part of the spinal cord’s job. A headless warm body could still do the simple knee-jerk response, because simple reflex pathways are composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron; it is a very easy task to complete. Another pathway enables the pain reflex. For example, when your finger touches a flame, neural activity is excited by the heat. It then travels via sensory neurons to interneurons in your spinal cord. These interneurons activate motor neurons leading to the muscles in your arm. The simple pain-reflex pathway runs through the spinal cord and right back out, which is why your hand jerks away from the candle’s flame before your brain can respond to the pain. Another important job of the spinal cord is to send information to the brain. If the top of your spinal cord was severed, you wouldn’t be able to feel pain or pleasure from below. This led to the question of whether paralyzed men and woman could be capable of having erections. It was found that it depended on how much the spinal cord was severed. The genitals may be stimulated, but they may also be unresponsive and have no feeling. In conclusion, our nervous system is essential in sending messages from one place to another, messages that we need to function. This is a remarkable system, working at incredible speeds, and we don’t even realize it is happening.
This is a diagram outlining all of the different types of nervous systems in the human body. This diagram also illustrates the function of each nervous system.
system
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules defines nervous system as the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. The human nervous system is divided into two main kinds, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system while the peripheral nervous system is the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. Electrical cables called nerves connect the central nervous system with the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands. The information that travels in our nervous system includes three types of neurons. Sensory neurons carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Motor neurons carry instructions from the central nervous system to the muscles. Information is also processed in the brain’s internal communication system with interneurons. All of this is very complex; our nervous system has millions of sensory neurons, millions of motor neurons, and billions and billions of interneurons. Our peripheral nervous system has two different components, somatic and autonomic. The somatic nervous system enables us to move our skeletal muscles. Our autonomic nervous system controls the glands and muscles of our internal organs, and it serves two important functions which can be overridden, but they are normally automatic. The sympathetic nervous system arouses and expends energy. This is used to accelerate your heartbeat, raise your blood pressure, slow your digestion, raise your blood sugar, and make you ready and alert. When the stress is over, your parasympathetic nervous system does the opposite, conserving energy as it calms you. Your heartbeat will decrease, you blood sugar will lower, etc. Both of these work together to balance you out. The central nervous system is the most important because it houses your brain. With approximately 40 billion neurons in the brain alone, there are about 400 trillion synapses. These neurons get grouped into work groups called neural networks. They then network with nearby neurons to have short, fast connections. The other part of the central nervous system, the spinal cord. The spinal cord is a two-way information highway that connects between the peripheral nervous system and the brain. Neural fibers send up sensory information while descending fibers send back motor-control information. The neural pathways that control our reflexes is part of the spinal cord’s job. A headless warm body could still do the simple knee-jerk response, because simple reflex pathways are composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron; it is a very easy task to complete. Another pathway enables the pain reflex. For example, when your finger touches a flame, neural activity is excited by the heat. It then travels via sensory neurons to interneurons in your spinal cord. These interneurons activate motor neurons leading to the muscles in your arm. The simple pain-reflex pathway runs through the spinal cord and right back out, which is why your hand jerks away from the candle’s flame before your brain can respond to the pain. Another important job of the spinal cord is to send information to the brain. If the top of your spinal cord was severed, you wouldn’t be able to feel pain or pleasure from below. This led to the question of whether paralyzed men and woman could be capable of having erections. It was found that it depended on how much the spinal cord was severed. The genitals may be stimulated, but they may also be unresponsive and have no feeling. In conclusion, our nervous system is essential in sending messages from one place to another, messages that we need to function. This is a remarkable system, working at incredible speeds, and we don’t even realize it is happening.
This is a diagram outlining all of the different types of nervous systems in the human body. This diagram also illustrates the function of each nervous system.
http://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.html. This link goes to an article that has this diagram. Both the article and the diagram describe more about the nervous system and what each one does. I thought the diagram was interesting as it shows how the nerves are grouped. The article gives not only facts and functions of the nervous system, there are also examples of diseases that can occur to the central nervous system.
Objective 10: Describe research on the split brain
Our brain is divided into two hemispheres, each one with its own function. This is especially apparent after brain damage. Research spanning over a century has found that accidents, strokes, and tumors in the left hemisphere can impair things such as reading, writing, speaking, and understanding. But when similar events occurred in the right hemisphere, there wasn’t nearly as many severe effects. This led to wonder how much impact the right hemisphere had in our lives. Everything began in 1961 when two neurosurgeons from Los Angeles, Philip Vogel and Joseph Bogen, found that major epileptic seizures were caused by an amplification of abnormal brain activity bouncing back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres. They hypothesized that they could put an end to the seizures by severing the corpus callosum, which is the large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres. They operated on patients, and surprisingly, practically all of the seizures disappeared. The patients with these split brains seemed normal, their personality and intellect were hardly affected. These experiments have shed some light on the relationship between the two hemispheres.
As shown by the diagram, information from the left half of your field of vision goes to right hemisphere and vice versa. Data from either hemisphere is quickly transmitted to the other via the corpus callosum. This means that a person with split brain will not experience this sharing of information. As the person stared at the spot, the researcher would flash a stimulus to its right or left. This enables researchers to be able to quiz each hemisphere separately. When a word is flashed to the right field of view, the patient would see the word. When a word is flashed to the right, the patient can’t say what they saw, but they can draw it. Today researchers are still discussing the split brain, and new strides are being made to understand and learn more about patients with split brain.
http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213. This website has YouTube videos,podcasts, and many examples of patients with split brain. This article goes very in-depth with the split brain and talks about different scenarios of patients with split brain and the research that has been done about it.
Our brain is divided into two hemispheres, each one with its own function. This is especially apparent after brain damage. Research spanning over a century has found that accidents, strokes, and tumors in the left hemisphere can impair things such as reading, writing, speaking, and understanding. But when similar events occurred in the right hemisphere, there wasn’t nearly as many severe effects. This led to wonder how much impact the right hemisphere had in our lives. Everything began in 1961 when two neurosurgeons from Los Angeles, Philip Vogel and Joseph Bogen, found that major epileptic seizures were caused by an amplification of abnormal brain activity bouncing back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres. They hypothesized that they could put an end to the seizures by severing the corpus callosum, which is the large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres. They operated on patients, and surprisingly, practically all of the seizures disappeared. The patients with these split brains seemed normal, their personality and intellect were hardly affected. These experiments have shed some light on the relationship between the two hemispheres.
As shown by the diagram, information from the left half of your field of vision goes to right hemisphere and vice versa. Data from either hemisphere is quickly transmitted to the other via the corpus callosum. This means that a person with split brain will not experience this sharing of information. As the person stared at the spot, the researcher would flash a stimulus to its right or left. This enables researchers to be able to quiz each hemisphere separately. When a word is flashed to the right field of view, the patient would see the word. When a word is flashed to the right, the patient can’t say what they saw, but they can draw it. Today researchers are still discussing the split brain, and new strides are being made to understand and learn more about patients with split brain.
http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213. This website has YouTube videos,podcasts, and many examples of patients with split brain. This article goes very in-depth with the split brain and talks about different scenarios of patients with split brain and the research that has been done about it.